The hedonistic view focuses on increasing pleasure and reducing pain. Note that while the terms were originally employed literally, this is no longer the case. There seems to be no common ground on what actually constitutes pleasurable or painful activities. The hedonistic philosophy usually has a sexual or libidinal connotation.

Contents
1 Basic concepts
2 Predecessors
3 Hedonism and Egoism
4 See also
5 External links
 

Basic concepts
The basic idea behind hedonistic thought is that all actions can be measured on the basis of how much pleasure and how little pain they produce. In very simple terms, a hedonist strives to maximize this 'ratio' (pleasure over pain). The nineteenth-century British philosophers John Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham established the fundamental principles of hedonism through their ethical theory of Utilitarianism. Utilitarian value stands as a precursor to hedonistic values in that all action should be directed toward achieving the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Though consistent in their pursuit of happiness, Bentham and Mill’s hedonistic values are faintly divergent in relation to their exposition of the principle of utility. There are two basic schools of thought on hedonism:

One school, grouped around Jeremy Bentham, argues a quantitative approach. Bentham believed that the value of a pleasure could be quantitatively understood. Essentially, he believed the value of a pleasure to be its intensity multiplied by its duration - so it was not just the number of pleasures, but their intensity and how long they lasted that must be taken into account.
Other proponents, like John Stuart Mill argue a qualitative approach. Mill believed that there can be different levels of pleasure - higher quality pleasure is better than lower quality pleasure. Mill also argues that simpler beings (he often references pigs) have an easier access to the simpler pleasures; since they do not see other aspects of life, they can simply indulge in their pleasures. The more elaborate beings tend to spend more thought on other matters and hence lessen the time for simple pleasure. It is therefore more difficult for them to indulge in such 'simple pleasures' in the same manner.
Critics of the qualitative approach, however, argue that there are several problems with it. They assert that generally, 'pleasures' do not necessarily share common traits, besides the fact that they can be seen as "pleasurable". Because what is 'pleasant' is a subjective thing, differing between individuals, such critics claim that 'qualities' of pleasures are difficult to study objectively and in terms of universal absolutes. Critics of the qualitative approach cite the fact that the standards of what ought to be "pleasurable" vary between individuals, of which sexual sadism is an example, in support of their claim that pleasures cannot be distinguished with respect to their 'qualities'.

Predecessors
Epicureanism is considered by some to be a form of ancient hedonism. Epicurus identified pleasure with tranquility and emphasized the reduction of desire over the immediate acquisition of pleasure. In this way, Epicureanism escapes the preceding objection: while pleasure and the highest good are equated, Epicurus claimed that the highest pleasure consists of a simple, moderate life spent with friends and in philosophical discussion. He stressed that it was not good to do something that made one feel good if by experiencing it one would belittle later experiences and make them no longer feel good. For example, too much sex might later decrease interest in sex, which may cause one to be dissatisfied with one's sexual partner leading to unhappiness.

Hedonism and Egoism
Hedonism can be conjoined with either psychological or ethical egoism to make psychological hedonism: a purely descriptive claim which states that agents naturally seek pleasure, or ethical hedonism, the claim that we should act so as to produce our own pleasure.

One constant objection is that where one finds pleasure, another may find pain, leading to a contradiction in what the moral act is. This is only a contradiction for moral absolutists. From a moral relativist's point of view, there is no contradiction.

However, hedonism is not necessarily related to egoism. The Utilitarianism of John Stuart Mill is sometimes classified as a type of hedonism, as it judges the morality of actions by their consequent contributions to the greater good and happiness of all. Note that this is altruistic hedonism. Whereas some hedonistic doctrines propose doing whatever makes an individual happiest (over the long run), Mill promotes actions which make everyone happy. Compare individualism and collectivism.

It is true that Epicurus recommends for us to pursue our own pleasure, but he never suggests we should live a selfish life which impedes others from getting to that same objective.

Some of Sigmund Freud's theories of human motivation have been called psychological hedonism; his "life instinct" is essentially the observation that people will pursue pleasure. However, he introduces extra complexities with various other mechanisms, such as the "death instinct". The death instinct, Thanatos, can be equated to the desire for silence and peace, for calm and darkness, which causes men another form of happinesss. It is also a death instinct, thus it can also be the desire for death. The fact that he leaves out the instinct to survive as a primary motivator, and that his hypotheses are notoriously invalidated by objective testing, casts doubt on this theory.

Christian Hedonism is a term coined in 1986 for a theological movement originally conceived by a pastor, Dr. John Piper, in his book, Desiring God: Meditations of a Christian Hedonist. The tenets of this philosophy are that humans were created by (the Christian) God with the priority purpose of lavishly enjoying God through knowing, worshipping, and serving Him. This philosophy recommends pursuing one's own happiness in God as the ultimate in human pleasure. Similar to the Epicurean view, the highest pleasure is regarded as something long-term and found not in indulgence but in a life devoted to God. Serious questions have been raised within the Christian community as to whether Christian Hedonism displaces "love God" with "enjoy God" as the greatest and foremost commandment.

A typical apologetic for Christian Hedonism follows: It would seem that if you were to love something truly, then you must truly enjoy it. Thus, Christian Hedonism is exemplified in relation to Jesus Christ, who justifies God in loving a rebellious creation by providing the sacrifice of Himself as the payment allowing God to love us, and us to love Him, forever. It could be summed up in this statement: "God is most glorified in us, when we are most satisfied in Him".

Quite a few people equate hedonism with sexuality and having a very loose or liberal view of the morality of sex. As noted above, many (perhaps most) forms of hedonism actually concentrate on spiritual, intellectual, or otherwise non-sexual forms of pleasure. The pursuit of sexual pleasure can certainly be a form of hedonism, but it is not the mainstream one. However, this has become the mainstream use of the word.

More recently, the term Christian Hedonism has been used by the French philosopher Michel Onfray to qualify the various heretic movements from Middle-Age to Montaigne.

See also
Morality
Ethics
Hedonistic imperative
Paradox of hedonism
Psychological hedonism
Marquis De Sade
Brave New World, a book by Aldous Huxley detailing a totalitarian and hedonistic dystopia.
Dorian Gray, a fictional character by Oscar Wilde
Hedonism Bot, a fictional character in Futurama.
External links
Look up Hedonism in
Wiktionary, the free dictionary.The Hedonistic Imperative
The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy on:
Epicurus
Mill
Freud
Christian Hedonism
Articles critiquing Christian Hedonism
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
Article on attitudes toward pleasure in Judaism
Hedonism & Lifestyle 

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Categories: Ethical schools and movements | Motivation

Human sexuality
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 Sexuality Portal
This article is about the issues and phenomena pertaining to human sexual function and behavior. For information about sexual activities and practices, see the article human sexual behavior. For information on animal sexuality see Animal sexuality
Human sexuality refers to the expression of sexual sensation and related intimacy between human beings, as well as the expression of identity through sex and as influenced by or based on sex. There are a great many forms of human sexuality (sexual functions). The sexuality of human beings comprises a broad range of behavior and processes, including the physiological, psychological, social, cultural, political, and spiritual or religious aspects of sex and human sexual behavior. Philosophy, particularly ethics and the study of morality, as well as theology, also address the subject. In almost any historical era or culture, the arts, including literary and visual arts, as well as popular culture, present a substantial portion of a given society's views on sexuality. In most societies and legal jurisdictions, there are legal bounds on what sexual behavior is permitted. Sexuality varies across the cultures and regions of the world, and has continually changed throughout history.

A large variety of books, educational websites, and local education/support/social organizations exist for various forms of sexuality.

Contents [hide]
1 Scope of human sexuality
2 Physiological aspects
3 Social aspects
4 Society and politics
4.1 Sex education
5 Cultural and psychiatric aspects
6 Documentary films
7 Study of sexuality
8 Topics in human sexuality
9 External links
 

[edit]
Scope of human sexuality
The term human sexuality covers a very wide range including:

The physiology (or actual biology) of human sexuality, and sexually related aspects of how the body works.
Who and what others, people interact or are attracted to, sexually. (Sexual orientation)
How we see ourselves, which may differ from the physical form we have, ie, personal identity. (Intersex, transsexual)
How we come to choose the sexual choices we make. (Environment, choice, and sexual orientation)
How humans act in seeking sexual activity, and with sexual partners, and the scope of sexually oriented behaviours. (Human sexual behavior)
The psychological significance of sex, which may be related to its emotional effects, its physiological effects, or tied up with other psychological aspects, such as power, control, or the need for security.
Sex and its relationship to social structure, thus sex within marriage, religion, morality and the law.
Arts and media depiction of sexuality.
Sex education
Social norms, traditions and rituals related to sexuality
Understanding of sexual activity outside those norms. (see Paraphilia)
How society judges where lines are to be drawn, what constitutes unacceptable conduct, who is vulnerable to its abuse, and how they are protected or violators dealt with.
Research into human sexuality. (such as the Kinsey Reports)
Positions
[edit]
Physiological aspects
Human sexuality can be influenced by hormonal changes in the development of the fetus during pregnancy. Many claim its manner of expression is largely because of genetic predisposition. Others say it is because of one's own personal experimentation in early life, and thus the establishment of preferences. A less divisive approach recognises that both factors may have a mutual role to play. Human physiology and gender makes certain forms of sexual expression possible.

Sexual dysfunction addresses a variety of biological circumstances whereby human sexual function is impaired. These manifestations can be in the form of libido diminution or performance limitations. Both male and female can suffer from libido reduction, which can have roots in stress, loss of intimacy, distraction or derive from other physiological conditions.

Performance limitations may most often affect the male in the form of erectile dysfunction. Causes of this may derive from various forms of disease pathology including cardiovascular disease, which can reduce penile blood flow along with supply of blood to various parts of the body. Moreover environmental stressors such as prolonged exposure to elevated sound levels or over-illumination can also induce cardiovascular changes especially if exposure is chronic.

[edit]
Social aspects
Human sexuality can also be understood as part of the social life of humans, governed by implied rules of behavior and the status quo. Thus, it is claimed, sexuality influences social norms and society in turn influences the manner in which sexuality can be expressed. Since the invention of the mass media, things such as movies and advertising have given sexuality even more ability to shape the environments in which we live. Some see sexuality as distilled (often into stereotypes) and then repeatedly expressed in commercialized forms.

Gender identity is an aspect of human sexuality that can be affected by one's social environment, and differerent social environments can have specific attributes they associate with each sex, such as certain types of dress, colors, behaviors. A common example in Western media could be the portrayal of a little boy in blue shorts and a white T-shirt playing with a toy truck, while a girl is shown in a pink dress playing with a doll.

[edit]
Society and politics
[edit]
Sex education
Sex education is the introduction of sexual topics within an educational context. Almost all western countries have some form of sex education, but the nature varies hugely. In some countries (such as Australia and much of Europe) "age-appropriate" sex education often begins in pre-school, whereas other countries (notably the USA) leave sex education to the teenage years and even the late teenage years. Sex education covers a whole range of topics from "where do babies come from?" via the contraception versus abstinence debate to self-examination, signs of sexual diseases, and the social and psychological implications of sexual relationships.

[edit]
Cultural and psychiatric aspects
Human sexual behavior in most individuals is typically influenced, or heavily affected by norms from the culture in which the individual lives. Examples of such norms are prohibitions on sexual intercourse before marriage, or against homosexual sexualities, or other activities, because the religion to which the individual's culture adheres forbids such activities (see taboo). Sometimes, if not most times, such culturally induced behaviors do not reflect the natural sexual inclinations of the individual.

Those who wish to express a dissident sexuality are often forced to form sub-cultures within the main culture due to various forms of oppression or repression. In other cases, forms of sexuality may develop into a fetish or alternately develop as a form of psychiatric disorder or paraphilia.

[edit]
Documentary films
Filming Desire: A Journey Through Women's Film, A film by Marie Mandy, 2000
(Comedy)The Mating Habits of the Earthbound Human (1999) Starring: David Hyde Pierce, Mackenzie Astin Director: Jeff Abugov
"New Sex Now: Life's Ultimate Pleasure" (2002, New Sex Institute)
[edit]
Study of sexuality
In contemporary academia, sexuality is studied in the fields of sexology and gender and sexuality studies, among many other fields.

[edit]
Topics in human sexuality
Sexology (the study of sex)
History of sex
Homophobia
Homosexuality and psychology
Eroticism
Paraphilias and fetishes (Some may be considered sex crimes in various jurisdictions).
Virginity
Sex organs
Male -- Penis (notably the foreskin and glans), Testicles, Prostate
Female -- Vulva (notably the Clitoris), Vagina (notably the Cervix), Uterus, Fallopian tubes, Ovaries
Male reproductive physiology:
Spermatogenesis
Erection
Ejaculation
Female reproductive physiology:
Menstruation and PMS
Pregnancy
Childbirth
Lactation
Genital modification and mutilation are practiced for a variety of reasons, including medical and socio-cultural. This area is often controversial.
Castration: the removal of some or all of male external sexual organs, practice often for punitive purposes, or cultural reasons
Sterilization, the surgical modification of sexual-reproductive organs to prevent fertility
Male circumcision (often simply, circumcision)
Foreskin restoration
Female circumcision (also known as female genital mutiliation)
Related medical fields
Andrology
Endocrinology
Gynaecology
Obstetrics
Urology
Sexual development
Child sexuality
Puberty
Sexuality in older age
Physical attractiveness
Penis enlargement
Jelqing
Sexual orientation
Heterosexuality
Homosexuality
Bisexuality
Asexuality
Paraphilia
Pederasty
Pedophilia
sexual lifestyles
Celibacy
Lifelong monogamy
Serial monogamy
Polyamory
Polyfidelity
Casual sexual activity
Sexually transmitted diseases
Acquired ImmunoDeficiency Syndrome(AIDS) — Caused by HIV
Herpes
Syphilis
Gonorrhea
Genital warts
Crab lice
Hepatitis
Sexual behavior (sexual acts & practices) and directly related topics
The Basics
Safer sex
Sexual arousal
Seduction
Cruising for sex
Flirting
Foreplay
Kissing
Petting
Erogenous zone
Eroticism
List of sexual slang
Sexual intercourse

A trip is being planned for 18-24 August 2006, Asian Hedonism’s Thai Sensual Escapade. S$1,500/pax, max. 8 pax. Cost includes airfare and accommodation from Singapore to Bangkok, to Koh Samui, to Ko Pangan and back to Singapore. Includes talents and party essentials. Email queries to asianhedonist@hotmail.com